Hello fellow AP US History student!

Since I made a blog for the themes project, it's more difficult to read than a slideshow. When reading this information, start with the entry over the Declaration of Independence, followed by the Articles of Confederation, and then the Northwest Ordinance. Then, go to my very first post, the Missouri Compromise, and read counter-chronologically until the most recent piece of American legislation I have written about, the Truman Doctrine. Happy studying!

Northwest Ordinance

Despite its many weaknesses, the Confederation accomplished a mighty feat with the Northwest Ordinance. Passed July 13, 1787, this act both delineated a system of government for the Northwest Territory and established how states become a part of America. Previous legislation, the Territorial Ordinance of 1784 and the Land Ordinance of 1785, and attempts by Thomas Jefferson and Manasseh Cutler had gone awry in their attempts to take on this task of divvying up the land in this territory. However, at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, the Confederation finally passed the ordinance that would solve many of the problems these previous endeavors had faced. Firstly, instead of the rough crowd that was formerly allowed to hold public office in the regions of the Northwest Territory, a governor (who wielded considerable power), secretary, and three judges were assigned by Congress. Then, once the region's population reached five thousand, property-owning men could elect an assembly; however, the governor possessed absolute veto. Finally, at the population of sixty thousand, a region could apply for full statehood. The constitutions of the territory included a bill of rights and outlawed slavery, but they did not require state-funded public education.

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 173-74. Print.

"Northwest Ordinance", Ohio History Central, July 1, 2005, http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=1747

"IHB: Northwest Ordinance of 1787." IN.gov: Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 May 2011. <http://www.in.gov/history/2695.htm>.

Web. 1 May 2011. <http://static.newworldencyclopedia.org/9/9e/Northwest-territory-usa-1787.png>.

Articles of Confederation

In addition to creating the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress established a committee, headed by Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania author John Dickinson, whose responsibility was to plan out this newborn nation's system of government. Dickinson's idea of a strong central government appalled delegates on July 12, 1776 and consequently was given a major renovation before it was approved by Congress November 5, 1777. The Articles of Confederation allowed for a one-house legislature with one vote from each state. There was no single executive body with no power to veto the legislature's decisions. Taxation was not allowed, which caused wartime difficulties. An amendment was only allowed if a unanimous vote by the states passed it through. This weak government was ratified with much dissent on March 1, 1781 and lasted only six years before our Founding Fathers began to overhaul the ineffective Articles of Confederation.

John Dickinson

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 170-71. Print.

Web. 1 May 2011. <http://www.history.army.mil/books/revwar/ss/p083.jpg>.

Declaration of Independence

At the outset of the Second Continental Congress, which began May 1775, in Philadelphia, not all the delegates--and not all the colonists--were in favor of declaring independence from Great Britain. Indeed, even the delegates in favor of severing ties with the mother country were wary of doing it to hastily, thus isolating and displeasing the colonist public. While the Congress continued flip-flopping on this issue, two important pushes toward independence occurred. First, in December 1775, the British Parliament passed the Prohibitory Act, which blockaded the colonies' ports and allowed for the seizure of American ships. Further riling up the colonists was Thomas Paine's Common Sense. This pamphlet defamed King George III as a "royal brute" and put into question the entire concept monarchical rule. More importantly, Paine made the point that it was not "common sense" to continue under British rule, and with this he stressed immediate revolution, stating that "the birthday of a new world is at hand." On July 2, 1776, the Congress voted for independence. Two days later, Thomas Jefferson's written declaration was accepted. The Declaration included a list of objections to King George III, but more importantly, it challenged all Americans to partake in democracy ad liberty.

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 146-8. Print.

"Declaration of Independence." Web. 1 May 2011. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Declaration_independence.jpg/600px-Declaration_independence.jpg>.

The Truman Doctrine

Harry S. Truman's key method for dealing with Soviet and communistic influences was the policy of containment--the brainchild of Secretary of State George C. Marshall, undersecretary of state Dean Acheson, and Soviet expert George Kennan. Kennan, in an article for Foreign Affairs, wrote that nothing short of "long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies" could stem the tide of the communism across the globe. Truman put words into action with the Truman Doctrine.

One such victim of communist influence was Greece. Since March of 1946, Great Britain had been bolstering Greece's government against a communist insurrection. By the next February, the British government could no longer support Greece, informing the United States of this. Great Britain was also withdrawing financial aid from Turkey, where Soviets were demanding access to the Dardanelles. Citing his domino theory, Acheson said that should Turkey and Greece fall to communism, so too would nations as far east as India. On March 12, 1847, President Truman requested $400 million to aid these two countries to prevent "subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." This doctrine has often been cited as the beginning of the Cold War.

President Truman and Dean Acheson

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 825-6. Print.

President Truman's Message to Congress; March 12, 1947; Document 171; 80th Congress, 1st Session; Records of the United States House of Representatives; Record Group 233; National Archives.

Newman, John J., and John M. Schmalbach. United States History: Preparing for the Advanced Placement Examination. Revised. New York, NY: Amsco School Publications, Inc., 551-52. Print.

"Pres. Harry S. Truman Talking to Dean Acheson." Web. 28 Apr 2011. <http://imagecache6.allposters.com/LRG/37/3790/OBEIF00Z.jpg>.

Lend-Lease Act

The depressing and disillusioning outcome of World War I, the isolationism of the 1920s, and the struggle of overcoming the worldwide economic depression all led to American resistance to involvement in the Second World War. Franklin D. Roosevelt, the president who helped lead Americans out of the Great Depression, however, disagreed with Congress and the general public and sought to revise previously enacted neutrality legislation by instead allowing cash-and-carry trade with belligerents. As German forces continued beating down on the Allies, Roosevelt gained further ground on the road toward war with such initiatives as the policy of allowing all-out aid to the Allies and the Destroyer Deal. Eventually, the public came to agree with the interventionists--the opponents of isolationists who wanted to help the Allies so as to protect American security. This change of opinion spurred Roosevelt to attempt to truly make American the "arsenal of democracy."

Roosevelt proposed this action January 1941. The act delineated that the United States would lend and lease "defense article[s]" to the "government of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States." This plan also included an appropriation of $7 billion dollars, effectively eliminating any financial obstacles Great Britain might have faced in accessing the American arsenal. After this piece of legislation, America was just short of entering the war themselves, and the Allies would have to wait until later that year--after the bombing of Pearl Harbor--to receive assistance in combat from the United States.

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 798-9. Print.

Lend Lease Bill, dated January 10, 1941. Records of the U.S. House of Representatives, HR 77A-D13, Record Group 233, National Archives.

"Total Lend-Lease Aid to April 30, 1943." Web. 27 Apr 2011. <http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/ref/LL-AllForOne/img/LL-AllForOne-p5.jpg>.

Immigration Acts of the 1920s

There were many causes for the immigration acts of the 1920s--acts which limited the amount of immigrants who came to the United States. Firstly, immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, Asia, and other parts of the world came in increasing numbers, taking the place of the traditional and somewhat accepted immigrants, immigrants from northern and western Europe. That these new immigrants were often of a different religion (Catholic) and spoke various languages sparked nativist sentiments amongst many American citizens. Secondly, this nativism had found a powerful voice in the Ku Klux Klan, and vigilante groups in other parts of the nation were just as strong. Thirdly, the closing of World War I promised a deluge of European immigrants seeking asylum in the United States. Many Americans reacted to this rumor unfavorably, and so Congress passed the Emergency Immigration Act of 1921. This law stipulated that immigration from European nations was restricted to three percent of that immigration in the year 1910. However, this law was ineffective in the eyes of nativists; nearly a quarter of a million immigrants from southern and eastern Europe still came to the United States each year. Consequently, in 1924 Congress passed the National Origins Quota Act. The overall quota for European immigrants was set at 150 000, and most of these vacancies were reserved to immigrants from northern and western Europe. Also, the base year for immigration numbers was changed from 1910 to 1890, a year showing less immigration from southern and eastern European countries. This system of quota legislation lasted until the mid-twentieth century.

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 751-2. Print.

"Immigration Restriction Act." United States History. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Mar 2011. <http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1368.html>.

Marcos, Catherine, and Tracy Nguyen. "U.S. Immigration Legislation: 1924 Immigration Act." U.S. Immigration Legislation. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Mar 2011. <http://library.uwb.edu/guides/USimmigration/1924_immigration_act.html>.

Web. 26 Apr 2011. <http://www.upa.pdx.edu/IMS/currentprojects/TAHv3/Images/immigration_act.jpg>.

President Wilson's Fourteen Points

Ever the idealist, President Wilson, backed by a group of around 150 experts on the political and social sciences, composed fourteen points--stepping stones for, supposedly, world peace. Points one through five dealt with the agreement upon international standards of peace and respect; they concern openly arriving at peace covenants, allowing free sea navigation, removing barriers to free trade, reducing the armaments of nations, and adjusting colonial claims, respectively. Points six through thirteen pertain to countries involved in the First World War and their respective evacuations, restorations, and general readjustments. Most of these were compromised, and only Belgium, France, and Poland were completely restored by Wilson's suggestions. Later, in the Treaty of Versailles, the country of Czechoslovakia was created in addition to Poland. Wilson's final point was perhaps the one he most promoted at the peace conference in Paris in 1919. The creation of a League of Nations was Wilson's shining star among his promotions of peace. However, due to discord in the Senate, many of Wilson's efforts went unachieved.

Wilson's own shorthand draft of his announcement of his Fourteen Points

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 727, 728-9. Print.

President Wilson's Message to Congress, January 8, 1918; Records of the United States Senate; Record Group 46; Records of the United States Senate; National Archives.

"Wilson's Fourteen Points." Future. U.S. Department of State, n.d. Web. 19 Mar 2011. <http://future.state.gov/when/timeline/1914_timeline/wilson_14_pts.html>.

""Fourteen Points Address" draft." Web. 19 Mar 2011. <http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/images/s59.4p1.jpg>.

Espionage and Sedition Acts

Not long after the United States joined the war did President Wilson take action to promote American involvement on the homefront. While projects such as the Committee on Public Information and the "four-minute men" were relatively benign in their propaganda efforts, vigilantism and repression still flourished. Legislation reflected this sentiment in the Espionage and Sedition Acts. On June 15, 1917, Congress passed the Espionage Act; this threatened sentences of up to twenty years and fines of up to ten thousand dollars to any person working against domestic efforts to garner support for war involvement. The act also would imprison violators if they were found aiding enemy nations and allowed the screening of mail. The following year brought the passage of the Sedition Act, which brought harsher penalties to citizens who spoke out against government actions during the First World War. It is now easy to see that these measures were slightly extreme, and much of the apparent danger was attributed to the growing Red Scare that accompanied World War I. However, the United States government saw how vital it was to gather approval during this very controversial war.

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 721. Print.

"Espionage Act of 1917." United States History. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Mar 2011. <http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1344.html>.

"Sedition Act of 1918." United States History. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Mar 2011. <http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1345.html>.


Web. 26 Apr 2011. <http://explorepahistory.com/cms/pbfiles/Project1/Scheme34/ExplorePAHistory-a0m7l8-a_349.jpg>.

The Sussex Pledge

The Sussex incident was a microcosm of the American-German affairs relating to U-boat warfare during the First World War. A French passenger steamer, the Sussex received an unwarranted attack from a German submarine. The sinkings of the Lusitania and the Arabic still fresh in his mind, Secretary of State Robert Lansing  advocated cutting off relations with Germany; this new style of war was both surreptitious and dangerous, and moved many Americans' views on the war more in line with the Allied forces. However, the Kaiser was not eager to displease such a powerful force and potential foe as the United States. This led to his acceptance of President Wilson's petitions on May 4, 1916. Wilson had, on April 18, warned Germany that unless it stopped this warfare on passenger and merchant ships, the United States would indeed cut off relations. This Sussex pledge kept peace for a few months, but war was still imminent lest the pledge should have faltered. And the pledge did, when Germany decided that it gave them the best advantage to drop the pretenses of peaceful negotiation and declare unrestricted submarine warfare on all ships near Allied nations.

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 712-3, 714. Print.

Wilde, Robert. "The Sussex Pledge." European History. About.com, n.d. Web. 18 Mar 2011. <http://europeanhistory.about.com/od/worldwar1/p/prsussexpledge.htm>.

"Sussex Incident." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/575672/Sussex-Incident>.

"Liberty Bonds." Web. 18 Mar 2011. <http://www.conservapedia.com/images/1/1f/Liberty_Bonds.jpg>.

The Roosevelt Corollary

At the turn of the century, much of American foreign policy was directed toward protecting its pursuits in Latin America. Theodore Roosevelt's canal project coupled with increasing interest in interfering with Latin American economies and governments added to the fear of European intervention put into writing in the Monroe Doctrine decades previously--a fear realized when many Latin American countries had to default on debts to European powers. Roosevelt was worried that these unfavorable ties to Europe would weaken the influence the United States held over these shaky Latin American countries. Consequently, he created the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which denied European intervention in Latin American countries but asserted American intervention if Latin American nations could not control their governments and economies.

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 706. Print.

Theodore Roosevelt's Annual Message to Congress for 1904; House Records HR 58A-K2; Records of the U.S. House of Representatives; Record Group 233; Center for Legislative Archives; National Archives.

"Roosevelt Corollary and the Monroe Doctrine." About Theodore Roosevelt. The Theodore Roosevelt Association, May 2010. Web. 18 Mar 2011. <http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/life/rooseveltcorollary.htm>.

Roosevelt Corollary. Web. 18 Mar 2011. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0b/Roosevelt_monroe_Doctrine_cartoon.jpg/300px-Roosevelt_monroe_Doctrine_cartoon.jpg>.

Eighteenth and Nineteenth Amendments to the Constitution

The temperance movement in American society dated back to the early nineteenth century, but the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited the making, selling, and transporting of alcoholic beverages, had its roots in the First World War. The push for morality was high at this time, and many advocates cried out against the manufacture of liquor at a time when soldiers were starving on the European battlefront. Not only this, but also many played the anti-German card and attacked breweries. Organizations such as the Women's Christian Temperance Union and the Anti-Saloon League made the final push for the constitutional amendment of Prohibition, which went into effect January 1920. However, support for this cause soon weakened, and with the Twenty-First Amendment (1933), Prohibition was repealed.

Women's suffrage is another cause that dates back to the nineteenth century. After the Civil War, advocates saw the vote given to African-American men, but women had to wait until 1920 to receive suffrage. In the decades leading up to this constitutional amendment, many groups argued for the cause, and in 1890, the National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage Association merged into the National American Woman Suffrage Association, which emerged as a powerful force behind women's suffrage. President Woodrow Wilson supported this movement in 1918, and Congress passed the amendment in 1919.

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 671-73. Print.

"Eighteenth Amendment", Ohio History Central, July 1, 2005, http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=1493

Web. 3 Feb 2011. <https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDgoaJC7f9WWqOoX9Jyva0Wvj0SSOtQRvkSiSnc40LX7j7c9zXaTWcEZiBm7koAGRp4jJnJdcwQWEnAtBtvhG_nLbCh9pF-Wo-7diXv6emYdj17U7PJhyZNMnGR3MoWUjFtUPU_KvCxuA/s1600/Prohibition.gif>.

Joint Resolution of Congress proposing a constitutional amendment extending the right of suffrage to women, May 19, 1919; Ratified Amendments, 1795-1992; General Records of the United States Government; Record Group 11; National Archives.

Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments to the Constitution

The Sixteenth Amendment, the right of the federal government to enact an income tax, was a long time coming. The first income tax was enacted in 1894, but this was quickly struck down by the Supreme Court. Due to low prices for agricultural goods and high prices for industrial goods, farmers had lobbied for such a tax since the Civil War, and the Democratic Party was behind this movement at the turn of the century. Conservatives in 1909 wanted once and for all prove the impossibility of such a measure, and so they went a step further than the progressives who wanted to add a income tax provision to a tariff bill and offered that it be made a constitutional amendment, believing that such a piece of legislation would never be ratified. But to their shock, the amendment was passed by over three-fourths of the state legislatures, and it was passed by Congress July 2, 1909. The Sixteenth Amendment took effect February 25, 1913, and has been considered one of the most important pieces of legislation in American history.

Originally, senators were elected by state legislatures. In the nineteenth century, however, extended vacancies, differences and discrepancies in the ways states elected their senators, and cases of bribery and other dishonest political methods were signs for need of reform. After the turn of the century, the state of Oregon pioneered a method of identifying the public's choice of senators using the state's primary election. Though many states adopted this process, it eventually became clear that only a constitutional amendment would solve the problems that arise from the state's election of senators. The Seventeenth Amendment was passed in 1912 and was ratified only a few months after the Sixteenth Amendment in 1913.


Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 687. Print.

The 16th Amendment, March 15, 1913; Ratified Amendments, 1795-1992; General Records of the United States Government; Record Group 11; National Archives.

Joint Resolution proposing 17th amendment, 1913. Enrolled Acts and Resolutions of Congress, 1789-. General Records of the U.S. Government, Record Group 11, National Archives

"Direct Election of Senators." U.S. Senate. U.S. Senate, n.d. Web. 2 Feb 2011. <http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Direct_Election_Senators.htm>.

Federal Reserve Act

The December 1913 Federal Reserve Act created a central bank for the United States but was in many ways a compromise between those favoring public banking and those favoring private. It emphasized an elastic, flexible currency that was still grounded and stable. The Federal Reserve Act created the Federal Reserve Board and twelve district banks which blended representation from private bankers with presidentially-appointed governors. The Federal Reserve board served to adjust the discount rate, buy and sell government bonds on the open market, and set the reserve ratio. Banks were required to join this system, and within a year, almost half had done so. The Federal Reserve Act has been considered the most important piece of legislation passed within Woodrow Wilson's term, and the Federal Reserve System is still in existence today.

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 682-3. Print.

"American President: Federal Reserve Act Signed--December 23, 1913." Miller Center of Public Affairs. University of Virginia, 2011. Web. 1 Feb 2011. <http://millercenter.org/president/events/12_23>.

Web. 1 Feb 2011. <http://daretodeclare83.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/fed_reserve.jpg>.

Federal Meat Inspection Act & Pure Food and Drug Act

Muckraking abounded in the Progressive Era, a good example of which is Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel The Jungle. The Jungle documented all the dirty little secrets of the meatpacking industry and made them for public view, who met these detailed descriptions with universal disgust and outrage. Though the novel was intended to stir outrage at the deplorable conditions the meatpacking workers labored in, the public was more focused on the deplorable conditions their meat was subject to, and because of this, people bought less meat and demanded more reform. The Federal Meat Inspection Act of 1906 attacked poorly labelled meat goods as well as the spread of food-borne illnesses, and the act answered the public's demand for government inspection and sanitation standards for meat and meatpacking industries.

Further cry for government-backed food and drug safety stemmed from Samuel Hopkins Adams exposé of fraudulent patent medicines in the muckraking magazine Collier's. The now public knowledge that most medications contained alcohol and other poisons caused the Department of Agriculture to push for reform. The Roosevelt administration backed this movement and passed the Pure Food and Drug Act on June 30, 1906. This act created the Food and Drug Administration, required licenses for physicians to prescribe certain medications, and required that drug manufacturers list ingredients on labels.


Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 682-3. Print.

Canaday, Marquis. "The Meat Inspection Act of 1906." Suite101.com: Online Magazine and Writers' Network. N.p., 23 Sep 2010. Web. 1 Feb 2011. <http://www.suite101.com/content/the-meat-inspection-act-of-1906-a289424>.

Blackwell, Jon. "1906: Upton Sinclair." The Capital Century -- 100 stories of New Jersey history. The Trentonian, n.d. Web. 1 Feb 2011. <http://www.capitalcentury.com/1906.html>.

"Pure Food and Drug Act." United States History. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Feb 2011. <http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h917.html>.
  
Web. 1 Feb 2011. <http://files.sharenator.com/madcow_184_1_399_quotThe_Junglequot_By_Upton_Sinclair-s399x400-108351-580.jpg>.

Sherman Antitrust Act

The Sherman Antitrust Act is an important piece of legislation in American history. It marks the first attempt at regulating monopolies, and the first law to use the constitutional power of regulating interstate commerce. Trusts were seen as detrimental to competition especially due to their unregulated nature. Democrats and Republicans were united in passing this measure, and they named trusts as "every contract, combination in the form of a trust or otherwise, or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce." This ambiguous wording led to the Sherman Antitrust Act to not be utilized for its original intent, however, and its first judicial interpretation of the act proved this. In United States v. E. C. Knight Co., the Supreme Court ruled that the Sherman Antitrust Act didn't apply to manufacturing and thus didn't apply to E. C. Knight Co., even though the E. C. Knight Co. oversaw almost all sugar refineries in the United States; they considered this monopoly of manufacturing only indirectly related to interstate commerce and therefore not subject to the Sherman Antitrust Act.

The Sherman Antitrust Act was also misused because of the poorly worded phrase "restraint of trade." This allowed for big business, the original targets of this law, to sue labor organizations, whose strikes were often literally "in restraint of trade or commerce." In fact, this law was not used properly until the administration of Theodore Roosevelt, who, in 1902, found that the Northern Securities Company, which was headed by many millionaire monopoly moguls, was in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. Roosevelt busted more trusts in 1906 and 1907, notably Standard Oil, and President Taft, who had a total of forty-three antitrust cases in his term in office, followed suit.

Divine, Robert A., T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, and R. Hal Williams. America Past and Present. Revised Sixth Edition, AP* Edition . Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2003. 588, 680-81. Print.

Act of July 2, 1890(Sherman Anti-Trust Act), July 2, 1890; Enrolled Acts and Resolutions of Congress, 1789-1992; General Records of the United States Government; Record Group 11; National Archives.

KERMIT L. HALL. "E. C. Knight Co., United States v." The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. 2005. Encyclopedia.com. 1 Feb. 2011 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

Web. 1 Feb 2011. <http://affordablehousinginstitute.org/blogs/us/wp-content/uploads/monopolists_boss_senate.jpg>.